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Introduction to Avian Medicine

Author: Gretchen Kaufman, DVM

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1. Learning Objectives

This section is designed to present an overview of avian diseases with an emphasis placed on pet birds, but including important references to poultry and wild birds. Pet birds (chiefly psittacines) are the types of birds that will most likely be seen by the majority of graduates in veterinary practice. Although poultry medicine is now considered a specialty (except in cases of small backyard flocks), there is a wealth of information available on these birds and they provide a valuable model avian group. A small amount of time will be devoted to diseases of other captive species of birds and to wild birds. It is intended that the comparative nature of the course will help to demonstrate the value of a basic understanding of the diseases presented and will enable students to approach problems which occur in any avian species.

2. Anatomy Review

Please review your 1st Year Comparative Anatomy notes on avian species prior to attending these lectures.

Further information can be viewed at:

Psittacine Anatomy
Avian respiratory anatomy and physiology

3. Taxonomy

3.1. General avian taxonomy for the veterinarian

The class Aves includes a wonderful and diverse group of creatures which are generally accepted to be the closest living relatives to the dinosaurs. Keeping track of taxonomy can be challenge, especially for the less well known species.

3.2. Psittacine taxonomy

Most pet birds fall into the Psittaciforme group general known as parrots and including: amazon parrots, macaws, conures, cockatoos, cockatiels, budgerigars, love birds, etc.

The Parrot Lexicon is also a great reference with pictures.

4. Introduction to Pet Bird Preventative Medicine

4.1. Choosing the right bird

Ideally, the veterinarians involvement begins before the client selects their pet. What is involved in choosing the right bird? There are many variables to consider. Some important questions to raise with the prospective owner are: the purpose of the pet, the personalities of various species, the lifestyle of the person involved, what they are willing to invest, and the experience of the prospective owner with birds. Due to the possible substantial investment of money and time and the longevity of some of these birds (100 years for an Amazon!), examination of these issues can be very important.

There is a significant difference between the human "hand-raised" baby bird and an adult bird caught in the wild, or even a captive born chick that has been raised by its parents. The hand-raised baby is imprinted on humans and produces a well adjusted, amiable, more interactive pet.

The budgie and cockatiel (12 years?) vs. the cockatoo, macaw, or amazon (40-100 yrs.!) represents a substantial commitment beyond what one might expect with a more traditional pet. Some of these birds go on to become part of the family, and are passed down through one or two generations. To review some common species and their behaviors, visit the Clinical Skills site.

4.2. The "new bird" veterinary exam

As with cats and dogs, a veterinary examination is strongly recommended soon after someone acquires a new bird. During this examination the veterinarian establishes a baseline history, initial body weight and physical examination and may perform some laboratory work (baseline CBC/Chemistry, serology, cultures, etc.) as dictated by the specific situation. This first visit provides an opportunity to discuss husbandry, nutrition and behavior, and helps to get the new owner off on the right foot.

4.3. Transporting birds

When transporting birds, it is important that they are secure, protected from draughts but have adequate ventilation, and do not have toys or bowls that can hurt them when in motion. In cold weather, cages and carriers should be protected from the wind with a towel and vehicles should be prewarmed before putting the cage in the car. Small birds being tranposrted to the veterinarian can often be brought in their own small cage. This allows the veterinarian to assess the caging environment and examine the droppings. Larger birds should be transported in a secure pet carrier (a cat carrier will do). It is usually not necessary to provide a perch for short trips. Discourage owners from bringing in birds on their shoulder without any restraint - accidents can esaily happen, especially in a waiting room full of excited dogs and cats.

4.4. Routine grooming

Routine grooming procedures such as wing clipping, nail trimming, beak trimming, etc. are performed only as needed by the individual bird and client. Many birds do not need grooming, i.e. their wings are allowed to grow, and they keep their own beaks and nails in shape. However, certain situations dictate that an animals wings are clipped regularly, usually two or more times yearly. Clipped wings permit greater control over the bird's movements and allow for easier taming. Clipping before the summer season is highly recommended to prevent flying away through an open door or window. Nails require trimming to keep the owner comfortable when handling the bird, and occasionally the beak has abnormal growth or occlusion and requires filing.

Some owners like to come in at least once a year for these procedures along with a physical examination. Others perform the grooming tasks themselves (with the cooperation of the bird!) or take the bird to a pet store for the service.

4.5. Understanding "Problem behaviors"

Pet birds require a significant amount of daily attention. They are extremely social creatures in the wild and this need for social interaction is maintained in captive birds. If they are not sufficiently entertained they may develop neurotic behaviors such as screaming at inappropriate times, destructive behavior to people and the environment, and most tragically, self-destructive behavior such as feather picking and self mutilation.

4.5.1. Screaming

Some vocalization must be accepted as normal and natural behavior. In the wild birds often scream to flock mates when they can't see them, but they know they are around (familiar?). Excessive screaming may be an expression of dominance or for attention getting (it is inappropriate to scream back at the bird). Covering the cage, or banishing may work. Screaming may also be for a reason (angry, hungry, lights out?, change of routine, calling the "flock", bored).

4.5.2. Talking (or not Talking)

Certain species are better talkers than others (Amazons, African Greys), but there are always individual influences. Many African Greys do not talk!

4.5.3. Fearfulness

This is an innate characteristic of many species (cockatiels, A.Greys, conures) and cannot be changed, but should be respected. At other times the environmental conditions may promote fearful behaviors: the bird does not feel like it is in a protective flock (ignored?).

4.5.4. Aggressiveness

Towards people
Towards other birds

Biting or aggressiveness is usually a behavior reserved for the "alpha" animal of the household. It also may be occurring with fear (especially in young Af. Greys). To readjust the pecking order: keep the bird on a lower level than the people, keep wings clipped, and do not allow the behavior. It is good to cuddle the fearful bird. Aggression toward a particular individual may develop either because of history of abuse by that person or similar person, or due to mating behavior (wanting to guard its mate, offspring and nest).

4.5.5. Feather picking/Self-mutilation

Feather picking/self-mutilation is a common disorder with multiple possible etiologies. It is often determined to be a behavior disorder (neurosis) and is diagnosed by eliminating other causes. This makes exact diagnosis difficult and expensive. It is frequently a recurring or chronic behavior and may be a stress, boredom or frustration response, most common in "fearful" birds such as cockatoos, African Greys, conures and cockatiels. Active self-mutilation is most common in cockatoos.

Differential diagnosis for the appearance of feather picking and/or self mutilation include: behavioral/environmental causes, contact dermatopathy, secondary to trauma, bacterial or fungal dermatitis/folliculitis, liver disease, intestinal irritation (parasitic, bacterial enteritis), Polyomavirus, Beak and Feather disease virus, and hypothyroidism or other hormonal imbalance.

Diagnosis can be made through careful examination of the history, the bird's environment, and the condition of the feathers and skin. Blood tests, cultures, fecal analysis, are helpful in ruling out some of the etiologies.

Treatment should be directed toward the cause. Treatment of neurotic feather picking can involve changing the environment, using a collar to prevent picking, and using medication (tranquilizers, sedatives, anti-psychotic drugs and hormone therapies) to change behavior. None of the treatments are effective in every case.

Self-mutilation in a cockatoo and a conure

5. Ancillary Material

5.1. Readings

5.1.1. Main Reference Texts

Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Medicine series. WB Saunders, Co.
Altman, Robert B., et al. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders Co., 1997.
Ritchie, Branson W., et al. Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake Worth, Fla. : Wingers Publishing, c1994.
Olsen, Glenn H., and Susan E. Orosz. Manual of Avian Medicine. Mosby, 2000. Available through Barnes and Noble. (This text is used in the Advanced Avian Elective)
Tully, Thomas N, Lawton, Martin P.C., and Dorestein, Gerry M. (ed.) Avian Medicine. Boston : Butterworth Heinemann, 2000.

5.1.2. Behavior Articles

Smith, Ione L. Basic behavioral principles for the avian veterinarian. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association for Avian Veterinarians, New Orleans, LA, 1999: 47-55.

Welle, Kenneth R. Clinical approach to feather picking. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association for Avian Veterinarians, New Orleans, LA, 1999: 119-124.

Welle, Kenneth. Psittacine behavior handbook. Bedford, TX: Association of Avian Veterinarians, 1999.

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