2.2.1. Snare Poles

• Any rope, cable, wire or monofilament
• Pipe or pole
• From small mammals and birds to rhinos
• Ketch-All Pole
• Whitney Restraint Pole
• Graspers

2.2.2. Snares

• Less impact than leghold traps
• Aldrich foot snares- black bears
• Lembeck leg snare- for foxes, bobcats and coyotes
• Foot snares- ungulates
• Ashcraft snare- migrating deer
• Bal-Chatri or hoop (Phi Trap)- raptors
• Neck snares- coyotes and other carnivores

2.2.3. Leghold or Gin Traps

• 'Soft-Catch' version
• 'Tranquilizer tabs' available
• Purse-Jawed traps/Bailey or Hancock traps - aquatic mammals

2.2.4. Traps

• National Live Trap
• Tomahawk
• Havahart
• Sure Catch
• Sherman Traps
• Barrel Traps (Rudolph traps)- small carnivores
• Culvert traps- bears
• Large box traps/giant "Havahart-style"- wild pigs, deer
• Clover Traps- deer, elk
• Panel Traps
• Corral Traps
• Trapsite transmitters

2.2.5. Nets

• Mesh size, material, shape
• Linear Drive-Nets
• Drop-Nets
• Jump-Nets
• Cannon or Rocket-Nets
• Net-Gun

2.2.6. Stationary Corral Traps or Bomas

• Funnel or Drive Traps
• Chutes and Squeezes
• Recovery Crates

3.1.1. It all began with bears

• Funny honey 1820's
• Chloral hydrate
• Broken teeth and nose rings

3.1.2. The Age of discovery - 1850's-1950

• Alpha-chloralose
• Chloral hydrate
• Chloroform
• Ether
• Sodium pentobarbital
• IV, IP, IM, Oral

3.1.3. The Paralytic era - 50's and 60's

• Paraldehyde
• Curare
• Nicotine
• Succinyl choline
• Flaxidil on a drill

3.1.4. Dawn of remote injection

• Crossman
• Crockford and Hayes
• Palmer

3.1.5. The 70's and 80's

• Xylazine
• Ketamine
• Phencyclidine
• Etorphine
• Nalorphine
• Diprenorphine

3.1.6. The 90's and beyond

• Age of designer neurophamaceuticals
• Targeted agonists and antagonists
• Long acting neuroleptics

3.1.7. Agonist/Antagonists

• A3080/nalmephene
• Carfentanil/naltrexone
• Medetomidine/atipamezole

3.2.1. Drug Schedules

[II-IV Substances have decreasing abuse liabilities (II is the highest) and approved medical use]

3.3.1. Environmental factors

• Distance/Dart/Drug/Damage equation
• Terrain - fences, falls, water, visibility
• Calendar and clock - time of year/time of day

3.3.2. Drug Delivery Systems

• Syringe Pole (jab stick)
• Dart Delivery Systems
  • Internal powder charges
  • Palmer Cap-Chur Equipment
  • Pneu-Dart
• Air-pressured Charges
  • Distinject Injectors
  • Dan-Inject
  • Telinject
  • Blow Pipe

3.3.3. Monitoring

• Physical exam first
• TPR every 5 minutes
• Pulse oximetry
• Be sterile
• Treat injuries
• Procedures (weigh, measure, mark, collect)

3.3.4. Drug selection

• Induction time
• Importance of reversibility
• Other anesthesia objectives
• Species
• Cost?

3.4.1. Opioids

• Central nervous system depression
• Used alone or in combination with neuroleptics to avoid excitement
• Rapid induction
• Wide safety margin, predictable
• Good analgesic properties
• Reversible
• Low dose volume
• Controlled narcotics
• Expensive

3.4.2. Alpha-Two Agonists

• Central nervous system depressant with sedative, muscle relaxant, and analgesic properties
• Ruminants, equids, suids, carnivores,birds
• Xylazine, Detomidine (2-3x) Medetomidine (10x)
• Combination with Ketamine or Opioids

3.4.3. Dissociatives (Cyclohexamines)

• Carnivores, Primates, Birds
• Negative effects are preventable with concurrent administration of tranquilizers
• Ketamine - often used with α-2s, benzodiazepines, or acepromazine
• Telazol - Tiletamine & Zolazepam advantage over Ketamine is its solubility and 2.5 times more potent but is not reversible

3.4.4. Clinical Signs

• Multiple sites of action in CNS
• Dysphoria
• Salivation
• Head weaving
• Wide eyes, Dilated pupils
• Recumbency

3.4.5. Advantages

• Rapidly absorbed: IM, IV, Oral
• Maintenance of cardiovascular and respiratory function
• Swallowing reflexes intact
• Consistent, obvious effects
• Animals appear unaware of human presence

3.4.6. Disadvantages

• Excessive salivation
• Seizure potential
• Muscle rigidity
• Hyperthermia
• Painful IM injection
• Rough recovery
• Inability to reverse

3.5.1. Benzodiazepines (Diazepam, Midazolam, Zolazepam)

• Enhance action of GABA
• Skeletal muscle relaxant
• Anticonvulsant
• Sedation in small ruminants
• Most effective when used in combo with opioids or cyclohexamines

3.5.2. Phenothiazines (Acepromazine)

• No antagonist
• Disrupts thermoregulation-avoid in high temperatures
• Poor analgesic
• Potentiates sedatives and anesthetics

3.6.1. Atropine Sulfate

• Sympathetic stimulation
• Reduces salivation, increases HR, dilates pupil

3.6.2. Doxapram hydrochloride

• Stimulates breathing
• Occasionally used to increased metabolism of Ketamine or Telazol
• Effectiveness questioned

4.2.1. Causes

• Drug-induced depression of respiratory center
• Airway obstruction (nose/trunk/tracheal occlusion, edema/vomiting blocking airway)
• Pressure of the diaphragm (bloat, intestinal contents)

4.2.2. Clinical Signs

• Few or no respirations
• Cyanosis
• Noisy breathing
• Oxygen saturation <70% for more than 2 min SO2

4.2.3. Treatment

1. Cease further administration of immobilizing drugs
2. Establish patent airway
3. Begin artificial ventilation (mouth to mouth, mouth to nose; endotracheal tube/air sac tube; tracheotomy if laryngeal block)
4. Administer 1-2 mg/kg doxapram (Dopram) IV
5. Administer appropriate antagonist IV

4.2.4. Comments

• Most common complication in wild animal immobilization
• Do not panic
• Up to 5 min before irreversible, hypoxic brain damage occurs

4.3.1. Causes

• Metabolic heat from physical exertion
• Heat absorption from environment (direct exposure to sun, confinement in poorly ventilated space)
• Drug-induced alteration of thermoregulatory centers
• Bacterial infection

4.3.2. Treatment

1. Cease all further administration of immobilizing drugs
2. Cool the animal (move out of direct sunlight)
   • Whole body immersion: most effective
   • Spray entire animal (groin & belly)
   • Pack ice or cold water bags on groin, head
   • Douse with isopropyl alcohol (rapid evaporation cools quicker)
   • Cold water edema
   • Cold lactated Ringer's solution IV or IP
3. Administer appropriate antagonist IV

4.3.3. Comments

• Severe hyperthermia (> 41 C) is a medical emergency
• You must cool animal immediately
• Always take rectal temperature ASAP & continue monitoring

4.4.1. Causes

• Drug-induced (decreased metabolism/endogenous heat production; alteration of thermoregulatory center
• Cold ambient temperature
• Loss of insulation (wet, soaked coat)
• Oiled fur or feathers
• Malnutrition (decreased fat)
• Long recumbency (compression)
• Inadequate circulation (shock, foothold trap)

4.4.2. Treatment

Warm the animal - ONLY Tx!! - Expect slow recovery

• Containers of warm water
• Blankets
• Foam pads
• Hand warmers
• Body heat
• Electric heat pads, lights

4.4.3. Comments

Antagonism of immobilizing drug is not recommended. You may have to give more drugs until animal is warmed

Chilling below 24 C invariably results in death

4.5.1. Causes

• Prolonged physical exertion
• Prolonged physiological/psychological stress
• Severe blood loss

4.5.2. Clinical Signs

• Rapid heart rate
• Low blood pressure (slow capillary refill)
• Muscle weakness
• Depressed sensorium (masked by drugs)
• Hyperventilation

4.5.3. Treatment

1. Cease all further administration of immobilizing drugs
2. Administer 30 ml/kg Lactated Ringer's solution IV - correct hemorrhage
3. Administer 5 mg/kg dexamethasone IV Prednisone at 10 mg/kg IV or methylprednisone at 20 mg/kg can also be used
4. Assist ventilation if necessary

4.5.4. Comments

• Many deaths are blamed to shock but definite diagnosis remains open
• Like capture myopathy little can be done - PREVENTION is the key

4.7.1. Causes

• Drug-induced (Xylazine)
• Stress, excitement
• Head positioned lower than stomach/rumen

4.7.2. Clinical Signs

• Gurgling sounds during respiration
• Choking, gasping
• Cyanosis
• Presence of foreign material in larynx, trachea
• Respiratory arrest

4.7.3. Treatment

1. Cease all further administration of immobilizing drugs
2. Clear airway
3. Begin artificial ventilation if necessary
4. Administer 1-2 mg/kg doxapram (Dopram) IV
5. Administer long-term antibiotics to prevent pneumonia

4.7.4. Comments

• Delayed death even after healthy capture and recovery - after days
• Euthanasia may be considered in animals with large amounts of aspiration

4.8.1. Causes

• Drug-induced (ketamine or ketamine combinations)
• Trauma
• Hypoglycemia

4.8.2. Clinical Signs

• Uncontrolled muscle spasms- whole body spasms
• Rigid extension of limbs
• Mouth gaping

4.8.3. Treatment

1. Administer 10 mg diazepam (Valium) IV slowly
2. Monitor temperature - endogenous heat, keep below 41 C

4.8.4. Comments

• Most caused by ketamine
• Do not harm animal but disrupt handling
• Can lead to hyperthermia

4.9.1. Causes

• Drug-induced
• Hypoxia -respiratory failure
• Acid-base imbalance
• Electrolyte imbalance - hyper/hypokalemia, hypocalcemia
• Autonomic nervous system imbalance - increased sympathetic/ parasympathetic tone
• Hypothermia

4.9.2. Clinical signs

• Weak or absent heart sounds or pulse
• Poor capillary refill (> 2 sec)
• Cyanosis
• Increased respiratory rate, abnormal pattern or apnea
• Dilated pupils
• Cold skin
• Loss of consciousness

4.9.3. Treatment

1. Cease all further administration of immobilizing drugs
2. Make sure that the animal can breathe -artificial respiration/doxapram
3. Begin external cardiac massage - press at one release at one with 60-100 cycles/min - detect femoral pulse
4. Inject 0.2 mg/kg of 1:10,000 epinephrine IV or IC and continue massage. Insert needle between 4th and 6th ribs, above and behind elbow. NOTE: many epinephrine concentrations come as 1:1,000; dilute each ml with 9 ml of physiological saline or lactated Ringer's
5. If no response to the above, inject 0.1 ml/kg calcium chloride solution (10% or 100 mg/ml) IV or IC
6. If still no response, repeat epinephrine and calcium chloride doses plus inject 10-20 mEq sodium bicarbonate IV or IC

4.9.4. Comments

• CRT is method to assess peripheral perfusion and cardiac function
• This is just a field method to Dx cardiac arrest- in practice a very complicated situation
• Many cardiac arrests arrive from metabolic disturbances due to physical exertion or stress
• Need ECG- one available for field situations

4.10.1. Causes

• Decreased water intake
• Hyperthermia- loss by transpiration
• Fever
• Chronic vomiting
• Wound drainage
• Polyuria

4.10.2. Clinical Signs

• Skin lacks pliability
• Mouth, gums dry
• Weak pulse
• Depressed sensorium
• Signs of shock

4.10.3. Treatment

1. Cease all further administration of immobilizing drugs
2. Determine the volume deficit (4-6-8-10 rule)
   1. Loss of 4% in body weight is determine by fluid loss or history
   2. Loss of 6% obvious fluid deficits- mouth mucosa red and dry
   3. Loss of 8% severe fluid loss - weak pulse, depression
   4. Loss of 10% life threatening- shock
3. Administer fluid therapy

4.10.4. Comments

Quickest field Dx- pinch skin

4.11.1. Causes

• Prolonged physical exertion
• Prolonged physiological and/or psychological stress

4.11.2. Clinical Signs

• Ataxia, weakness
• Paresis or paralysis
• Myoglobinuria
• Death

4.11.3. Treatment

Administer 5 meq/kg sodium bicarbonate IV. Administer slowly (4-5 ml/min) to avoid cardiac arrhythmias

4.11.4. Comments

• Pathogenesis not completely understood, treatment difficult and unsuccessful
• Lactic acidosis a consistent finding
• Restoration of normal pH in blood is thought to ameliorate pathology
• Clinical signs may appear in hours (acute form) or may take several days to develop (ataxic-myoglobinuric/rupture muscle syndromes)
• Serum chemistries severely altered
• CM reported in all animal groups but more common in ungulates
• Vitamin E and Selenium deficiency may be a predisposing factor

4.12.1. Human Exposure to Chemical Restraint Agents

• Cyclohexamines - Behavioral toxicity
• Xylazine - Respiratory support
• Opioids - Coma and possible death Naltrexone IV

4.12.2. Animal related

• Never work alone
• Danger zones
• Room to work
• Cameras
• Limit number of people

4.12.3. Human Exposure

• CPR and first aid training
• Do not handle immobilization drugs casually
• Identify and inform emergency clinics
• Always wear gloves when loading darts and syringes
• Hard case for loaded or used darts
• Used sharps and vials in biohazards container

4.12.4. Human First Aid

• Note time of exposure
• Note drug and amount
• Notify others and call 911
• Wash exposed area thoroughly
• Put patient in shade and loosen restrictive clothing
• Take patient to hospital

5.1.1. Texts and Articles

The Capture and Care Manual : capture, care, accommodation and transportation of wild African animals. ed. by Andrew A. McKenzie. Wildlife Decision Support Services CC. 1993.

Clark, R. K. and D. A. Jessup (eds.). 1992. Wildlife Restraint Series. International Wildlife Veterinary Services, Inc., Salinas, California.

Fowler, Murray E. Restraint and handling of Wild and Domestic Animals. 2nd ed. Iowa State University Press. 1995.

Haigh, Jerry, C. Opioids in zoological medicine. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, V. 21 (4), 1990, pp. 391-413.

Jalanka, Harry, H. the use of medetomidine, medetomidine-ketamine combinations, and atipamezole in nondomestic mammals: a review. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, v. 21 (3), 1990, pp. 259-282.

Kreeger, Terry J. Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization. International Wildlife Veterinary Services. 1996.

Nielsen, Leon. Chemical Immobilization of Wild and Exotic Animals. Iowa State University Press, 1999.

Williams, Elizabeth S. and E. Thomas Thorne. Exertional myopathy (capture myopathy). Chapter 16 In Noninfectious Diseases of Wildlife. A. Fairbrother, et al. (ed.). Iowa State University Press, 1998.