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Captive Bird Highlights (Non-psittacine)

Author: Gretchen Kaufman, DVM

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1. Learning Objectives

This section pulls together many of the diseases already discussed and helps to put them in a species-oriented perspective.
In addition some specific captive husbandry and management issues will be introduced.

2. Introduction

The captive bird world does not begin and end with poultry and psittacines, although these are the prominent species encountered in veterinary practice. There are many other groups occasionally requiring attention, including wild birds. Unfortunately, the literature is not as extensive as for pet birds and poultry, making diagnosis and treatment very challenging for the veterinarian. We will try to provide a summary of the important diseases of some of the more prominent species as well as provide a useful bibliography.

3. Pigeons

Columbiformes include 42 genera, and over 300 species spread around the world. Our native species include the common Mourning dove .

Domestic vs. wild pigeons
Rock dove Columba livia is native to Europe, North Africa, and southwestern Asia
Husbandry and the "Pigeon Fancier"

3.1. Infectious Diseases

3.1.1. Viral Diseases

Pigeonpox
Herpesvirus - inclusion body hepatits, pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis
Circovirus
Avian adenovirus
Avian parvovirus
Avian reovirus
Eastern, Western and Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
Rubivirus
St. Louis encephalitis
West NileVirus
Avian paramyxovirus - pigeon paramyxovirus, Newcastle disease (PMV-1), PMV-7
Avian influenza A
Avian retrovirus - leukosis, reticuloendotheliosis

3.1.2. Bacterial diseases

Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Mycobacteria, Erysipelas, Listeria, Clostridia, Salmonella, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Bordetella, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Borrelia, Pasteurella, Actinobacillus, Haemophilus, Acinetobacter
Chlamydia - Chlamydophila psittaci (distinct pigeon serovar)
Rickettsia - Coxiella burnetii, Aegyptianella pullorum
Mycoplasma
Acholoplasma

3.1.3. Fungal diseases

Candida, Microsporum, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Aspergillus

3.1.4. Parasitic diseases

Protozoa including Eimeria, toxoplasma, sarcosporidia, haemoproteus, plasmodium leucocytozoon, trypanasoms, spironucleus, trichomonas
Cestodes
Nematodes including Capillaria, Syngamus
- Note that toxicity has been observed with fenbendazole and albendazole in pigeons and doves. These anthelmintics should be avoided in Columbiformes, or should only be used with caution.
Trematodes
Ectoparasites including ticks, lice, mites

3.2. Preventative Medicine

Vaccines are available for pigeon poxvirus, avian paramyxovirus type 1-pigeon, and salmonella. Routine vaccination is often done in late summer. Newly hatched birds are vaccinated for pox at the end of their first July. Flocks should be screened for salmonella and parasites just before the breeding season. Pigeons are often routinely treated for trichomoniasis just before the first clutch hatches.

4. Toucans

Ramphastids (Order Piciformes)

This family includes the familiar Toucans, Toucanettes, and Aracaris. They are all South American birds.

Cuvier's Toucan

4.1. Noninfectious diseases

Beak fractures
Hemochromatosis (see Toxic and Metabolic Diseases)
Diabetes mellitus (see Toxic and Metabolic Diseases)

4.2. Infectious diseases

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Candidiasis
Paramyxovirus (Newcastles)
Chlamydiosis (?)
Mycobacterium
Plasmodium

5. Ratites

Ostrich, Emu, and Rheas are becoming more common in the USA. Other birds in this family include the Cassowary, the Kiwi and the Tinamou. The larger birds are being bred and raised for their meat, hide, and feathers. Massachusetts regulations as of September 1996 require an importation permit to bring these birds into the state with a health certificate and proof of avian influenza and Salmonella testing. These animals do require permits then to be bred and sold within the state.

Pair of captive emus

5.1. Handling and restraint

The hood
Transport
Anesthesia/Sedation
Recovery from anesthesia

5.2. Noninfectious diseases

Trauma (esp. the legs)
Angular limb deformities, Perosis, tendon ruptures
Foreign body ingestion/impaction
Infertility (50%)
Reproductive disorders
Spontaneous aorta rupture
Degenerative myopathy, capture myopathy

5.3. Infectious diseases

5.3.1. Viral

Coronavirus
Equine encephalitis viruses (vaccine)
Poxvirus
Influenza A
Paramyxovirus 1

5.3.2. Bacterial

Anthrax
Bordetella, Clostridium
E. Coli, Campylobacter, Pasteurella, Haemophilus, Salmonella
Pseudomonasm Klebsiella
Mycobacterium
Mycoplasma
Chlamydia

5.3.3. Fungal

Candida
Aspergillus

5.3.4. Parasitic

Protozoa: Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, Histomonas (rheas), Giardia, Trichomonas, and coccidia
Cestodes
Nematodes including libyostrongylus (wireworm), Syngamus, and Chandlerella and Baylisascaris (cerebrospinal migration)
Trematodes
Ectoparasites including gnats, fleas, lice, mites, ticks and flies

6. Finches and Canaries

Passeriformes - Passerines

Flycatchers

Larks

Swallows

Jays, Crows

Titmice, Chicadees

Nuthatches

Wrens

Thrushes, Robins

Pipits, Wagtails

Waxwings

Starlings

Vireos

Warblers

Grosbeaks

Buntings

Sparrows

Blackbirds, Orioles

Tanagers

Finches

Kinglets

Wild passerines represent a very large and diverse group, in which captive and wild finches are only a small part. Many of the disease syndromes are similar, and some diseases can be shared between wild and captive birds in the same family.

Finches are often kept in large groups as ornamental or breeding birds (or both). Canaries are really just large finches and diseases can be shared between the two. In canaries, kept for their lovely singing voices, the male is the best singer. Vocalization is intensified in the spring during the breeding season. A sign of illness in a male canary is often the cessation of his usual singing.

6.1. Restraint and handling

"I didn't examine the bird because I thought it might die in my hands." This gets you nowhere. Proper and gentle restraint is essential to physical examination and assessment, even of the smallest patient.

6.2. Non-infectious diseases

Feather cysts
Trauma
- Toe constrictions
- Broken limbs
- Predator and impact trauma (wild birds)
Amyloidosis
Hepatic lipidosis
Egg-binding

6.3. Infectious diseases

6.3.1. Viral

Poxvirus
Polyomavirus
Paramyxovirus 1, 2, and 3
Herpesvirus/cytomegalovirus
Adenovirus
West Nile virus

6.3.2. Bacterial

Chlamydia - considered resistant. Look for if exposed to psittacines
Mycoplasma - NEW EPIZOOTIC in wild finches
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus
Enterobacter, E. coli, Salmonella, Citrobacter, Yersinia, Klebsiella, Pasteurella, Haemophilus, Campylobacter, Pseudomonas
Listeria (esp. canaries)
Mycobacterium

6.3.3. Fungal

Candida
Aspergillus
Cryptococcus spp. often recovered from feces, pathogenic?
Avian gastric yeast

6.3.4. Parasitic

Protozoa including cochlosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia, and Coccidia (esp Atoxoplasma)
Cestodes
Nematodes including Ascardis, Capillaria, Spirurids, and Syngamus
Trematodes
Acanthocephalans
Air Sac Mites
External parasites including mites and lice
Hemoparasites including: Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Trypanaosoma, Plasmodium, Atoxoplasma, and microfilaria

7. Ancillary Material

7.1. Miscellaneous Species Bibliography

7.1.1. Pigeon references

Altman, Robert B., et al. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders Co., 1997. Chapter 50

Beynon, Peter H. Manual of Raptors, Pigeons and Waterfowl. BSAVA, 1996.

Cross, Garry. Paramyxovirus-1 infection (Newcastle disease) of pigeons. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, Vol. 4, no. 2, 1995: pp. 92-95.

Dorrestein, Gerry M. Viral infections in racing pigeons. 1992 Proceedings of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, pp. 244-257.

Marshall, Robert. Management of pigeon diseases. 1990 Proceedings of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, pp.122-135.

Ritchie, Branson W., et al. Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake Worth, Fla., c1994: Chapter 44.

Rupiper, D.J. Diseases that affect race performance of homing pigeons, Parts 1 & 2. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 12 (2,3), 1998.

Tudor, DC. Pigeon Health and Disease. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1991.

Tully, Thomas N., Martin P.C Lawton, and Gerry M. Dorrestein. Avian Medicine. Boston Butterworth. 2000. Chapter 14.

7.1.2. Toucan references

Altman, Robert B., et al. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders Co., 1997. Chapter 51.

Ritchie, Branson W., et al. Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake Worth, Fla., c1994: Chapter 47.

Tully, Thomas N., Martin P.C Lawton, and Gerry M. Dorrestein. Avian Medicine. Boston Butterworth. 2000. Chapter 13.

Worell, Amy. Management and medicine of Toucans. 1988 Proceedings of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, pp. 253-262.

Worell, Amy. Phlebotomy for treatment of hemochromatosis in two sulfur-breasted toucans. Proceedings of the 1991 Annual Conference of the AAV, Chicago, Illinois, September 23-28, 1991, pp.9-14.

Worell, Amy. Serum iron levels in Ramphastids. Proceedings of the 1991 Annual Conference of the AAV, Chicago, Illinois, September 23-28, 1991, pp.120-130.

Worell, Amy. Further investigations in rhamphastids concerning hemochromatosis. Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Conference of the AAV, Nashville, TN, August 31-September 4, 1993, pp. 98-107.

7.1.3. Ratite references

Altman, Robert B., et al. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders Co., 1997. Chapter 53.

Camus, A.C., et al. Chlamydiosis in commercial rheas (Rhea americana). Avian diseases, vol. 38, 1994: pp. 666-671.

Cornick, Janyce, and J. Jensen. Anesthetic management of ostriches. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 200(11), 1992. pp.1661-1666.

Fowler, Murray E. Comparative clinical anatomy of Ratites. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Midicine, 22(2), pp. 204-227.

Fowler, Murray E. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy 3. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co. c1993. pp. 194-210.

Howard, Lauren, L, et al. Fenbendazole and albendazole toxicity in pigeons and doves, Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 16 (3), 2002: 203-210.

Jensen, James M., et al. Husbandry and Medical Management of Ostriches, Emus and Rheas. Wildlife and Exotic Animal TeleConsultants, 1992.

Okotie-Eboh, G., et al. Reference serum biochemical values for emus and ostriches. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 53(10), 1992. pp. 1765-1768.

Ritchie, Branson W., et al. Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake Worth, Fla., c1994: Chapter 47.

Tully, T.N., et al. Eastern Equine Encephalitis in a flock of emus. Avian Diseases, 36, 1992. pp. 808-812.

Tully, Thomas N. and Simon M. Shane. Ratite Management, Medicine and Surgery. Malabar, FL : Kreiger Publsihing Co., 1996.

Tully, Thomas N., Martin P.C Lawton, and Gerry M. Dorrestein. Avian Medicine. Boston Butterworth. 2000. Chapter 10.

7.1.4. Passerine references

Altman, Robert B., et al. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders Co., 1997. Chapter 49.

Bauck, Louise. Survey of diseases of the Lady Gouldian finch. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, New Orleans, LA, 1999: 204-212.

Dorrestein, Gerry M. Virus infections in passerines with special reference to a coronavirus-like infection in canaries (Serinus canaria). Proceedings of the Annual conference & Expo of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, August 28-30, 1996: pp. 171-176.

Fischer, John R. et al. Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in wild songbirds: the spread of a new contagious disease in a mobile host population. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 3 (1), 1997.

Ritchie, Branson W., et al. Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Lake Worth, Fla., c1994: Chapter 43.

Tully, Thomas N., Martin P.C Lawton, and Gerry M. Dorrestein. Avian Medicine. Boston Butterworth. 2000. Chapter 7.

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